Malta’s Changing Rulers: A History of Conquest and Invitation

Malta’s strategic position in the Mediterranean has made it a coveted prize for various powers over the past millennium. This small archipelago, situated between Europe and Africa, has been shaped by a succession of groups and nations that conquered, populated, or governed it—sometimes through force, other times by invitation. The following traces the major groups and countries that have controlled Malta since 1091, focusing on their arrivals, takeovers, and lasting impacts.

Arab Rule (870–1091)

By the early 11th century, Malta was under Arab rule, which had begun in 870 CE with the Aghlabid conquest. The Arabs introduced advanced agricultural techniques and irrigation systems, shaping Malta’s medieval economy and culture. The population was predominantly Muslim, though there was a presence of Christian communities. This Arab rule remained stable until the arrival of the Normans in 1091.

Norman and Successor Dynasties (1091–1530)

The Normans, led by Roger I of Sicily, conquered Malta in 1091, establishing tribute payments, but full control was solidified by 1127 under Roger II, who integrated Malta into the Kingdom of Sicily. Over time, Norman rule encouraged Christian influence, with settlers from Sicily and southern Italy arriving gradually. Some Arab inhabitants remained, contributing to Malta’s evolving identity. Following the Normans, Malta passed through various European dynasties, including the Hohenstaufen (Swabians) in 1194, the Angevins in 1266, and the Crown of Aragon in 1282, remaining a Sicilian fief until the early 16th century.

Knights of St. John (1530–1798)

In 1530, Emperor Charles V granted Malta to the Order of the Knights of St. John, a military-religious order displaced from Rhodes. Invited to govern, the Knights transformed Malta into a fortified Christian stronghold, repopulating the islands with European knights, artisans, and workers. They fortified defenses against Ottoman threats, culminating in the Great Siege of 1565, where the Knights and Maltese locals repelled a massive Ottoman invasion. This victory cemented Malta’s Christian identity and secured the Knights’ rule for over two centuries, fostering a cosmopolitan society with settlers from across Europe.

French Occupation (1798–1800)

The Knights’ reign ended in 1798 when Napoleon Bonaparte’s French forces invaded during the Egyptian campaign. The French briefly introduced revolutionary ideals but alienated the Maltese through harsh policies, including the looting of churches. This led to a local uprising, and by 1800, after a British blockade starting in 1799, the French were expelled. Maltese leaders, with British assistance, invited the British to intervene, leading to Malta becoming a British protectorate.

British Rule (1814–1964)

Following the French expulsion in 1800, Malta became a British protectorate, formally annexed in 1814 under the Treaty of Paris, establishing the islands as a key naval base. British rule, which lasted until 1964, brought modernization, infrastructure, and education. Administrators, soldiers, and workers arrived, integrating Malta into the British Empire. Though British governance sometimes suppressed local autonomy, it also laid the foundations for Malta’s eventual independence in 1964, when it became a sovereign nation, and later a republic in 1974.

Post-Independence (1964–Present)

Since gaining independence in 1964, Malta has remained a sovereign republic, becoming a republic in 1974. While no foreign powers have ruled Malta since, the islands have embraced a multicultural legacy, welcoming expatriates and tourists from around the world, reflecting its rich history of conquest and invitation.

Today, Malta’s identity reflects this layered history of conquest and invitation, shaped by Arab farmers, Norman warriors, chivalric Knights, French revolutionaries, and British colonizers—all contributing to the rich cultural fabric of the nation.

Comparative Table of Rulers and Periods

Period	Ruler/Group	Key Actions	Duration
870–1091	Arabs	Introduced agriculture, irrigation; Muslim majority	221 years
1091–1530	Normans, Hohenstaufen, Angevins, Crown of Aragon	Conquered, Christianized, integrated into Sicily	439 years
1530–1798	Knights of St. John	Fortified, repelled Ottomans in 1565, cosmopolitan	268 years
1798–1800	French	Brief occupation, led to uprising	2 years
1800–1814	British (Protectorate)	Protectorate status, formal annexation in 1814	14 years
1814–1964	British	Annexed, modernized, naval base, independence 1964	150 years
1964–Present	Sovereign (Republic since 1974)	Independent, republic 1974, multicultural	Ongoing (61 years)